Confucianism
Most important to Chinese political as well as ethical thought are the teachings of Confucius, whose ideas and principles became known as Confucianism. Since after the Qin dynasty, Confucianism had permeated Chinese thought and, often, government policy until the early twentieth century.
Born in the small state of Lu during the time of Warring States, Confucius (551-479 B.C.E. His Chinese name was Kong Fuzi.) began his career as a scholar from a young age. Later on, he became a school master after his application for a government official was turned down. During a time of chaos and turbulence caused by wars among the warring states, he preached social and ethical principles that he believed would bring peace, contentment, dignity, and personal cultural development to all the people. He developed a large group of followers in many kingdoms. Most of his ideas were contained in a book named Analects.
Politically, Confucius felt that good government depended on good officials, who were, in his words, “men of ren.” To put it another way, good officials were men of good virtues, such as humanity, benevolence, and culture. These gentlemen had the vision to move the society toward peace and virtue. For him, law did not play such an essential role claimed by Legalists. The state should be like a harmonious family: the father was the undisputed head, each person, while having his or her special rights and duties, should obey him. Ethically, he and his followers believed in the essential goodness each individual, which put Confucianism in sharp contrast with Legalism which held a pessimistic view on human nature.
Confucianism focuses on five fundamental relationships: ruler and subject, parent and child, husband and wife, older brother and younger brother, and friend and friend. When each person in these relationships lives up to his or her obligations of those relationships, society is orderly and predictable.
Confucianism concentrates on the cultivation of junzi (gentlemen), those individuals who are considered superior because they are educated, conscientious, and able to put aside personal ambition for the good of the state. For Confucius, gentlemen were not born but made, through proper education. Believing that character, not birth, was important, he advocated equal access to education and taught whoever would come to him. Because of the chaos and confusion of his time, Confucius and his followers also believed that the past, with its peace and harmony, was the best. The belief that the past could be used to teach moral values was a major reason why the Chinese have attached great importance to preserving traditions.
The philosophies of Legalism and Confucianism came into conflict during the Qin dynasty. Largely due to the role played by Li Si, the prime minister, who was a strong advocate of Legalism, Confucianism lost to Legalism. The prevailing of Legalism resulted in the notorious persecution event known as “the burning of Confucian books and burial of Confucian scholars”. According to Sima Qian, the Grand Historian during the Han dynasty, thousands of books were burnt and a total of 460 scholars were buried alive. Such anti-intellectualism and brutality left a bad mark on the reputation of the Qin dynasty as well as that of Legalism.
Though the Qin rulers hated Confucius teachings, the next dynasty, the Han, embraced it. Under the Han, Confucius’s ethical and political values came to dominate the culture and thought of China’s scholars and intellectuals. They continued to be powerful for most of the following 2000 years. It also greatly influenced the political thought of Korea, Japan, and other Southeast Asian nations.